Sons of Ishmael: Muslims through European Eyes in the Middle Ages John V. Tolan John Tolan is one of the world's foremost scholars in the field of early Christian/Muslim interactions. In ten essays, he explores "Sons of Ishmael", the epithet many Christian writers of the Middle Ages gave to Muslims. Sons of Ishmael focuses on the history of conflict and convergent between Latin Christendom and the Arab Muslim world during this period. The Bible and Qur’an agree that the Arabs were the descendants of Ishmael, son of Abraham and Hagar. Ishmael is described in Genesis as "a wild man; his hand will be against every man and every man's hand against him." To many medieval Christians, this was a prophecy of the violence and enmity between Ishmael’s progeny and the Christians - spiritual descendants of his half-brother Isaac. Tolan also discusses areas of convergence between Christendom and Islam such as the devotion to the Virgin Mary in twelfth-century Syria and Egypt and the chivalrous myths surrounding Muslim princes, especially Saladin. By providing a closer look at the ways Europeans perceived Islam and Muslims in the Middle Ages, Tolan opens a window into understanding the roots of current stereotypes of Muslims and Arabs in Western culture. John V. Tolan, professor of history at the University of Nantes, is the author of numerous books, including the acclaimed Saracens: Islam in the Medieval European Imagination.